VCE Stuff > VCE History: Revolutions

Revolutionary Ideas: Resource

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Nick:
Here are my notes relating to the KEY IDEAS of the American and French revolutions. Key ideas are a highly dominant feature of AOS1 for all revolutions, and they are sometimes not explored adequately enough.



AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Opposition to taxation without representation was critical, particularly during the time of the Stamp Act and then the Boston Tea Party. The Americans had become used to a large degree of self-government; to having a say in the political and law-making processes. This was not a new thing to the Americans, it had been the case in the colonies since their inception. They therefore viewed the arbitrary and external taxation of the Stamp Act, the Townshend Duties and the Tea Act as heavy-handed, dictatorial government. The colonists insisted that taxation could only be passed if they had a voice in the British parliament, or at the very least to be consulted. They also wanted to have their petitions to Britain heard and treated with respect.

A desire for 'actual representation' was a corollary of the debate about representation. British parliamentary democracy was based, many Britons said, on virtual representation ... that is, the parliament acted for all its citizens, supposedly in their best interests. The growing industrial city of Manchester had a population of 65,000 but was not represented by a parliamentarian! This didn't matter, British politicians said, because Manchester was 'virtually represented' by the land-owning aristocrats of Devon and Sussex. The Americans rejected this and preferred actual representation: where each Member of Parliament or an assembly sat on behalf of a number of his constituents; this enabled every person to have a voice in the parliament, because they had an individual was sitting on their behalf... a direct line, in a sense, to their government.

A desire for sovereignty became part of the debate, particularly in 1774 and beyond. Thomas Paine wrote eloquently in Common Sense about the pressing reasons for independence and American sovereignty. The American colonies had grown through trade and commerce under England's imperial protection … but now they were developing rapidly, had increasing populations, were resource-rich, politically mature and intellectually active. It was a natural progression that the Americans desired sovereignty or political autonomy: the right of a nation's government to rule itself and not be commanded by others.

Fear of military oppression and 'tyranny' was an idea that spurred on many revolutionaries, particularly those in the lower classes. Britain was the world's leading military power at the time of the Revolution; its army and navy were much feared by its enemies - and also within its own colonies. Cities in America didn't even have a visible police force so the presence of British soldiers in the 1770s came as a shocking imposition. Many saw it as oppression, the use of a threat of violence to make the colonies 'obedient' again; others saw it as an insult, the kind of measure that might be taken in a colony in rebellion. The Boston 'Massacre', although it was probably the fault of the Americans and resulted in the death of just five people, was cleverly exploited to portray the imminent horrors of a standing army and England's 'murderous intentions'. The various Quartering Acts of 1765 and 1774, requiring Americans to house and feed British soldiers in their own homes, were also much despised.

Locke's concepts of the natural rights of man were derived from the Enlightenment but became an integral part of American revolutionary ideology. The English philosopher John Locke argued that man is born with 'natural rights' that no government could take away: these rights are life, liberty (freedom) and property (the right to acquire it and keep it safe from theft or seizure). Many progressive philosophers, both in America and elsewhere, thought the British to be infringing on these rights. It was the role of any government to protect the natural rights of its citizens, rather than to restrict or impinge upon them. These ideas also contributed to the French Revolution (1789).

Restriction of American commercial potential is perhaps a motive rather than idea but it was important nevertheless. Some left-wing historians have argued that the American Revolution was sparked and perpetuated by the merchant-class, who were angry at the many restrictions imposed upon them by British mercantilism and the Navigation Acts. They felt they could make much more money with greater levels of economic freedoms: if they could trade with France, Spain, Holland and the other nations of the world, on their own terms, and build industries and manufacturing facilities within America. This was certainly an important factor in motivating at least some American merchants.

Lack of respect paid to the colonial gentry might have been a key factor. The PBS documentary series "Liberty" suggests that the colonial upper-classes (men like Washington, Jefferson and Hancock) were 'jealous' and angry with the mother country because they aspired to be respected and admired in Britain; however the English would always look down on them as 'colonials' or 'provincials', as being 'not quite gentlemen'. This rejection by Britain, some historians claim, angered and inspired certain revolutionary leaders and propelled them towards revolution. George Washington, for example, had applied for a commission in the British army but this was rejected without explanation; he subsequently became the leader of the rebel colonial army. What might have happened if he had been accepted as a British officer...?

Religion and paranoia about Catholicism helped drive the revolution and secured it the support of America's Protestant churches. Although the American colonists often preached religious tolerance, in reality they feared Catholics: most colonists belonged, after all, to one of the many Anglican, Lutheran and Presbyterian churches and they feared the impact that the spread of Catholicism and the influence that 'Popery' or 'Papism' might have on America. The Quebec Act (passed straight after the 'Intolerable Acts' of 1774) allowed the French in that particular province to practice the Catholic religion... this fuelled suspicion that the British were 'soft' on Catholicism.

Constitutionalism: limits of power should be clearly expressed in a written framework. The US was the first modern nation to adopt a written constitution.
Nationalism: the patriotic idea that the America colonies constituted a country with unique experiences and ideas. Paine believed that America had “come of age” and no longer needed Britain to protect it.

FRENCH REVOLUTION
Liberty
Members of the Third Estate considered themselves to be an oppressed group, politically, socially and legally. Though he rarely did so, the king could issues lettres du cachet upon his political opponents and imprison them without trial in the Bastille or other state prisons; feudal overlords forced peasants to leave their homes to fulfill the hated corvee (unpaid labour on the overlord's own estate or on public works such as roads); the seigneurial and ecclesiastical courts could impose the death penalty for a range of offences, without right of appeal other than to the king; torture was used quite commonly to interrogate suspects and witnesses. Yet despite this apparent brutality the people of France were, relatively speaking, better off than those in most other parts of Europe. Most historians suggest that the French Revolution was driven more by political, economic and ideological factors than a response to violent feudal oppression, yet liberty ... freedom from abuse by government and the powerful ... remained a significant ambition for many participants. Enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke had expressed radical but popular arguments in favour of 'natural rights': that every person was born with the inherent right to life, liberty and property.

Equality
There is a stronger case to be made for equality. The French social structure was bitterly unfair: the first two estates were virtually exempt from personal taxation, while the nobility controlled positions of authority, ministry and bureaucracy through venality. For the rising bourgeoisie, who were eager to rise into positions of influence, this was a source of annoyance; many favoured a meritocracy where your ability, effort and talent (rather than your family or titles) determined your position in society. This was particularly true of the wealthier bourgeoisie who possessed more than the less-affluent nobility. The middle-class was also denied political representation and participation, though this was similarly true of the Second Estate. Concepts of equality and an enterprising talent-based society were reinforced by the success of the American Revolution and its own ideas and documents, like the Declaration of Independence. In the Third Estate it is undoubted that many peasants, workers, artisans and sans culottes felt unfairly exploited and less than amply rewarded by their bourgeois employers. In the radical phase of the revolution the sans culottes were thus motivated by the desire for political equality (a universal franchise, not the bourgeois-preferred system of 'active' and 'passive' voters) and greater economic equality, such as wage protection and price maximums.

Fraternity
Loosely described as 'brotherhood', fraternity became the third arm of the revolutionary triad. The French translation is actually egalitie from which we derive the term 'egalitarianism', meaning a belief in social, legal and political equality. Other connotations are more altruistic, such as 'concern for your fellow man' or possessed of a social conscience. Fraternity was undoubtedly expressed more in the revolution's more idealistic months, such as 1789 when the bourgeois National Assembly was churning out positive but idealistic reforms and documents like Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. As France dissolved into faction, counter-revolution, civil war and disorder, fraternity was forgotten in favour of protecting other revolutionary principles.

Popular sovereignty
This idea clearly separates feudal autocracy from representative democracy. Previously the king was 'sovereign' and was thus thought to both represent and wield absolute political authority. This idea was rigorously examined and queried during the Enlightenment, and found wanting. Philosophes like Rousseau and Sieyes suggested that the real political authority of a nation lay in the hands of 'the people', who formed a clear majority; government, kings and ministers ruled on behalf of the people, not over the people. There was no inherent authority in government, which could only stay in control while it enjoyed the support and backing of the people. The Third Estate, being by far the largest section of France's population, were the real possessors of sovereignty. Sieyes' pamphlet, 'What is the Third Estate?' articulated this idea clearly. When the Third Estate broke away from the Estates-General in mid-1789, it was a clear sign that they had accepted this idea as fact.

Constitutionalism
When the Third Estate separated from the Estates-General and met to swear the Tennis Court Oath, their pledge was to remain united until France had a constitution in place. Their desire for a written political framework was no fluke: it was based on the success of the Americans and their own written constitution, and marked a decisive turning-point in the relationship between governments and the governed. Fed up with the whims and broken promises of kings and ministers, many wanted a legislated written framework that clearly articulated the extent and limits of power. Almost all nation-states today have constitutional documents that underpin their governmental structure (only Great Britain, New Zealand and Israel do not, although their 'constitution' is said to be written in common law, precedent and convention). Constitutions protect the people from the excesses of rulers, articulate exactly what government and its offshoots can and cannot do, are rigid enough to provide stability but also flexible enough to be changed when the situation demands. Of course it could be said that France's constitutionalism was a failure, because the nation has had a dozen different constitutions since 1789, including three during the revolution (1791, 1793 and 1795).   

Property
'Life, liberty and property' were the three 'natural rights' espoused by Enlightenment philosophers such as Rousseau and John Locke. As far as property goes, this was the undeniable right to acquire wealth, land or possessions through one's own efforts, and to keep them safe from theft and seizure. The bourgeoisie who dominated the National Assembly of 1789-91 demonstrated strong interests in protecting and enhancing their capacity to acquire property: the Constitution of 1791 banned guilds and workers' associations, restricted the franchise (right to vote) to a much smaller 'propertied' class, and stabilised economic conditions and procedures. Other reforms, such as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, also benefited the bourgeoisie, albeit indirectly (e.g. the sale of church lands).

Religion
Religion became a battleground of the revolution, particularly after 1789. Religion had previously been a focus for the philosophes, particularly Voltaire, who criticised the excesses and profiteering of the church and the higher clergy. The bourgeois National Assembly proclaimed freedom of religion where it didn't impact on 'public order', and in 1790 launched an amazing attempt to create a virtually nationalised Catholic Church by setting and paying wages, declaring clerical appointments by election, and compelling all clergy to swear an oath of allegiance to the state. Church lands were confiscated and sold, the profits going to the state but the lands (not surprisingly) purchased by bourgeois speculators. These attacks on the church, which would have been unthinkable only two or three years earlier, divided the revolutionary cause instead of drawing more followers to it. The conservative, faithful peasantry in some areas even responded with counter-revolutionary violence (eg. the Vendee in 1793). Atheism, a fascination with classical mythology and Robespierre's rather bizarre 'Cult of the Supreme Being' all alienated many French from the revolution.

Enlightenment philosophes
Enlightenment- intellectual movement in which logic, reason and experimentation were investigated.

Hope this helps.  :)

Collin Li:
The constitution today still states that federal tax must be apportioned. This means that progressive taxation is illegal, but in America they ignore the constitution these days. Only a flat tax is justified.

I love the American Revolution, it is the first (and only, to date) major establishment of a libertarian society.

edit: changed "most" to "must"

Nick:

--- Quote from: coblin on January 24, 2008, 10:28:56 pm ---The constitution today still states that federal tax most be apportioned. This means that progressive taxation is illegal, but in America they ignore the constitution these days. Only a flat tax is justified.

I love the American Revolution, it is the first (and only, to date) major establishment of a libertarian society.

--- End quote ---

Spot on. The American Revolution was definitely my favourite. I found it fascinating to learn about how our current society is still essentially based upon the brave ideals of the American Revolutionaries.

Rietie:
Man... I wish I had those notes last year.

I have to say, the American is probably the easiest to understand, but the French is more interesting. I probably found the French hard to understand as we learnt about the Revolution between 1791 and 1795, in a week. My teacher sucked. Probably didn't help that I gave up trying to work hard.

JL_91:
omg 1791-1795 IN A WEEK?! 0_0

my revs teacher this year will be richard malone (he wrote the textbook 'analysing the russian revolution')..fabulous person and teacher!

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